dog care and behaviour

What Characteristics does a domestic dog share with its wild relatives?

Dogs are classified as Canids of which includes Domestic Dogs, Wolves, Foxes, Jackals, Dingoes and many more.

The domestic dog’s scientific classification is Canis Familiaris and subspecies Canis lupus familiaris Linnaeus 1758. The Wolf’s scientific classification is Canis Lupus Linnaeus 1758. “The species was originally classified as Canis familiaris and "Canis familiaris domesticus" by Linnaeus in 1758. In 1993, dogs were reclassified as a subspecies of the Gray Wolf, Canis lupus, by the Smithsonian Institution and the American Society of Mammalogists. ‘Dog’ is sometimes used to refer collectively to any mammal belonging to the family Canidae (as in ‘the dog family’), such as wolves, foxes, and coyotes.” [1]

The link between the Domestic Dog (Dog) and the Wolf is therefore a matter of scientific classification in Zoology. Interestingly the reclassification of the dog in 1993 meant the inclusion of Lupus to the scientific classification and therefore signifying the link between the dog and the wolf.

Apart for the physical features that a dog maintains with its wild relatives such as the four legs, muzzle, keen sense of smell, position of the ears etc, it also has in common a pack structure. However, Cesar Milan argues in his book that “Dogs have an ingrained pack mentality. If you are not asserting leadership over your dog, your dog will try to compensate by showing dominant or unstable behaviour. “[2] page 11. and “Dogs don’t have a name in a pack; they have a position within the pack. Some people who study dogs would name the ranks ‘alpha, beta, omega’ and so forth” [3] page 35. Whereas Barry Eaton argues that “Another aspect of the pack theory is that packs tend to be conspecific; in other words they are made up of the same species. Therefore dogs and people cannot form a pack in the true sense of the word; a social group yes, but not a pack. Dogs don’t think like us, behave like us, smell like us, or live by the same values as us. Given these facts, shouldn’t we be questioning whether our dog in the living room really is looking for opportunities to raise its status?” [4]

What Barry Eaton is arguing here is that a social structure exists for dogs in a human family but not a pack in the true sense of the definition, however, Cesar Milan is arguing that the bond between human and dog is a pack from the dog’s perspective. Neither are suggesting that dog only groups are not a pack.

It is well know that a wolf does operate best in a pack, packs in themselves do have a social structure, the dog sees this social structure in the human environment. The link between the dog and the wolf is therefore evident in the way the dog will interact between dog and his own species and the dog and the human family.

Bruce Foggle argues that dogs are still wolves in essence, “Dogs are wolves, although sometimes they look like they are in sheep’s clothing. We have altered their morphology, creating dogs that look like big sheep (the Maremma or Pyrenean Mountain Dog) so that they can live with the flock but protect it from danger. The dog might look like a sheep. It might actually THINK like a sheep, but the entire basis for its behaviour is what it inherited from the wolf.” [5] page xii

Dogs have been living with humans for circa 10,000 years, during that time we have, in some respects, genetically engineered by selective breeding in order that they can become working dogs for us. For Example the Bernese Mountain Dog was bred for draft work, the Boxer for bear fighting and the Mastiff as a war dog.

It is interesting that humans, throughout our evolution, have brought the dog with us; it is thought that, originally, the first wolves brought into the human encampment would have most likely been for defence due to their sharp hearing and their alertness. Latterly each trait would have been bred for a specific job i.e. hunting, drafting, watchdog, sniffer dog, and more recently Police Dogs, Rescue dogs, and service dogs such as Guide Dogs and dogs for the deaf.

In conclusion dog still shares a great many traits with his wild relatives and ancestors, however, as dogs are now primarily pets the dog’s evolution is more likely to be at the whim of breeders who are more likely to select dogs to breed from for aesthetic reasons rather than for a specific purpose or job. Whereas the wild canids are more likely to evolve due to environmental reasons or pressure on hunting grounds etc. in much more of a classic Darwinian way. Whilst the dog shares characteristics wolf or other wild canid it is likely that as the irregular breeding continues we will see a divergence from the wild canids.

References
[1] Web article http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dog.
[2] Be the Pack Leader, Cesar Milan, Hodder & Stroughton 2008
[3] Be the Pack Leader, Cesar Milan, Hodder & Stroughton 2008
[4] Web article http://www.deaf-dogs-help.co.uk/help/packleader.htm
[5] The Dog’s Mind, Bruce Foggle, Pelham Books 1992

Consider what factors we might need to consider in choosing a family dog?

There are a number of factors that need to be considered when choosing a family dog; this paper aims to discuss some of the most common factors.

The factors that are to be considered have been grouped in the following heading and sub headings.

About the Dog.
This section discusses the factors relating to the actual dog that might need to come into play before purchasing a dog.

Breed – which breed, if any, will be chosen? The question of breed is down to the owner’s personal preference there are over 400 recognised breeds and an almost immeasurable amount of cross breeds and mongrels. Each breed varies in size and temperament. “With a little research, you can look into purebreds armed with clues about their temperaments and what they will look like as adults” [1] page 42.
Size – is the fully grown adult dog the right size considering the type of accommodation that is owned and other family members/pets that are already living there? For example a Great Danes or Bernese mountain dog will take up quite a lot of room, “[Great Dane are a] giant, almost horse-like breed [that] requires an owner who can provide it with the space it needs.”[2] page 17. However a Pug or other toy breed will not but smaller breeds tend to have more energy than larger dogs.
Temperament – What is the temperament of the dog/breed as this has in important factor on the family that the dog will be entering? For example Rottweilers are notoriously head strong and without good strong leadership they will dominate the family where as a Labrador or Retriever tend to be more laid back. All dogs have an individual temperament but certain breeds were bread for particular jobs therefore they are more likely to have that characteristic hard wired into them.
Age – The age of the dog is an important factor as a pup will need extra work that an older dog does not, however you are likely to have the young dog for longer and factors such as the life expectancy of the breed need to be considered.

About the Family/Individual.
This section reviews the factors that a family or individual will need to resolve before getting a dog.

Money – How much will the dog cost, initially and throughout its life. On average a the cost of a dog is £21,979 “The top dog when it comes to costs is the Great Dane, which chews up a total of £31,840 over its average 10-year life, well ahead of the second-placed Rottweiler at £24,340. For the more economically minded, the Jack Russell stands out, costing a mere £17,476 and – with an average life of 12 years” [3]
Exercise – How much exercise will the dog need and who is going to do it. All dogs need some degree of exercise. Most dogs with the exception of perhaps some of the Toy dogs need regular exercise; this means a walk of at least 45 mins each day. This can be a test to the modern busy family, but the benefits to both dog and human are immense.
Sex – Male or Female? Males and Females can be equally affectionate or aggressive and much depends on the nature and nurture of the animal.
Other Pets – Are there other pets in the home? Contrary to Tom and Jerry cartoons Dogs and Cats can live together very happily. Dogs take their lineage from the Wolf and the natural wild killing instinct of the wolf has been breed out to a degree therefore care must be taken when introducing a new dog to existing pets.
Time – Dogs are social animals and have faired well amongst humans for many years due to the fact that our families are similar (in their eyes) to the dog or wolf pack. The modern family has a different make up to that of our ancestors. With the exception of the farming communities many of us in the West no longer hunt or rear livestock (a traditional dog job) and most of us need to go to work and spend many hours out of the home. This can be distressing for a dog with a very limited concept of time. Consideration must be given to how much of the time the dog will be left alone.

Sources
Where to get your dog is a hotly debated subject. The sources of dog are wide and varied and each has its pros and cons.
Breeder – Breeders are an excellent source for puppies but less able to supply older dogs. There may also be a waiting list for puppies. Breeders may be well intentioned amateurs and usually have devotion and love of the breed. As with any industry there are rogue breeders, however, by checking the kennel club registration of the breeder and by meeting them and asking questions you can ascertain the motives of the breeder.
Puppy Farm – Puppy farms are organisations that breed puppies for sale. They have received bad press over the years, the new owner must take extra steps to ensure that the farm is of good quality and that the farm is regulated and licensed to breed and sell puppies.
Animal Shelter – Animal shelters are an excellent source of dogs, as these dogs are usually there because they have become lost from their previous owners or they were unable to look after them for some reason. Animal shelters are normally charitable organisations who work hard to help dogs in distress. Most shelters will perform some sort of background checks on you before releasing the dog into your care.
Friend/Relative – Friends or relatives are a good source of dogs as you will usually have a good history of the dog and they can provide help and advice. More often than not you can “borrow” the dog for short periods in order to see how you get along. This is very valuable particularly for people who have never owned a dog before or who have other family circumstances that might question dog ownership.
Stray – Strays can present problems as they may have health or behavioural problems, however, if these issues can be overcome giving a stray dog a home can be a rewarding experience for both dog and owner. The difficulty is that they may not, fortunately, readily available or easy to catch.

In summary this essay has only scratched the surface when it comes to the factors that need to be considered when choosing a family dog. Dogs come in a multitude of sizes and temperaments each with its own unique set of needs. Each home or family has its own set of issues to face when considering a dog and once the decision has been made there are many sources to find a dog.
The important thing is that the dog is likely to be with you for the next 10 or 12 years and the dog is going to be largely dependant of you for Food, Water, Shelter and affection. The question of dog ownership is similar to that of considering having a baby. I.e. can we afford it? And can we devote enough time?
Owning a dog is a rewarding experience with careful thought and planning both dog and owner will have many enjoyable years together.

References.
[1] The American animal hospital association encyclopedia [sic] of Dog health and care, Sally Bordwell, 1994, Hearst Books.
[2] The American animal hospital association encyclopedia [sic] of Dog health and care, Sally Bordwell, 1994, Hearst Books.
[3] Internet article, http://www.churchill.com/pressReleases/07032005.htm, 2005, Churchill insurance.

Consider the value of pets to humans

Humans have had a working relationship with animals for circa 10,000 years. It is therefore reasonable to assume that at some point certain animals would become pets and hold a closer relationship to humans that mere food or a working animal. It is evident that certain animals have moved with the evolution of humankind the dog and the cat are two such animals which are considered in our culture to be pets, it is true that other animals have also evolved with us.

Which animals become pets is a matter of culture differences “Human attitudes to animals often appear extraordinarily variable and arbitrary. Consider just two examples. In India the cow is sacred, and its slaughter and consumption are taboo. As a result cows wander about and proliferate unmolested in a society where humans regularly die from lack of food. In the west the domestic dog has become the western equivalent of the sacred cow” [1] page xiii. As we know Dog is not eaten in Britain but is a valid food source in Korea this practice would be abhorred in the west.

Dogs started their evolutionary journey as a wolf (or Canis Lupus), there would have been little value in a wolf and, in fact, as a wild pack the wolf would have been a pest to evolving man in his desperate struggle to domesticate and rear his own livestock. At some point the wolf was domesticated and the dog evolved. Many dogs would have been breed and chosen for specific reasons, my own dogs, the Bernese Mountain Dog, would have originally been used as draft dogs where as the Rottweiler used as a guard dog. These breeds were chosen for specific tasks and their value was dictated by their usefulness.

In recent time animals have been used to fulfill an emotional need in humans and therefore the attachment humans place on pets in more a kin to the relationship between parent and child. The value of pets to humans is therefore an individual question of where the human sees the place of the pet. For example the many people in the west apply human characteristics to their pets often talking to them in a parent-child way, this can lead to problems with pets and in particular with dogs who are a pack animal and respect a strong pack leader. Dogs have evolved to work and live with humans because they see their human masters through their eyes as their pack leader.

Animals in general and pets specifically still have value as working animals such as guide dogs for the blind, PAT (pets as therapy) Dogs, Huskies dogs, and search and rescue dogs. These dogs are used where their unique skills or quality as a breed far outweigh any skills or technology that we humans have.

Some humans have little or no respect or value for their own or other people’s pets or animals, which makes it difficult to say that all humans value pets and there is the question of culture, one culture’s pet maybe another culture’s food. The RSPCA strive to protect animals from cruelty and neglect “122,454 cruelty complaints were investigated in 2006 [by the RSPCA and] 1,647 convictions against 898 defendants secured by private prosecution against those who break the laws in place to protect animals” [2]

In terms of value, some people pay thousands of pounds for pets, pet insurance, vets bills, food and treats. Companies like Pets at Home sell all manner of accessories for people’s pets. The dog does not care how much his lead and collar cost, a dog has no concept of this, to the dog a £1 collar and lead are exactly the same as if £45 was spent on similar items, however, because of the emotional attachment placed on the dog by the human the owner ‘feels’ better having spent more.

It is our culture to buy things for each other to show one another that we care, many people do this for their dog at Christmas etc, but a dog does not understand that this is a gesture of love; equally with food treats the dog is unaware of the reason behind the food treat. Just that there is food available now. Equally a re-homed well adjusted pet does not miss his previous owner but lives in the moment and enjoys his current owners.

Some people get pets as companions this is fulfilling the emotional need of the Human and therefore the value of the pet is immeasurable.

So the value of pets to humans can be measured in an unscientific way by the emotional attachment to the pet from the human and the way that a home feels somewhat empty when the pet is not there for whatever reason. Often pets are not treated as animals but as humans and we expected them to live up to human values and society, animals have no comprehension of democracy or reasoned arguments. This indicates that whilst humans are gaining much from the emotional relationship with the pet, the human may not be fulfilling the needs of the pet by treating it in a similar way to a human and by placing human characteristics and values upon it.

Some criminal elements see such a financial value in animals and particularly in pedigree dogs that they will take them. “Dog owners in the Amman Valley [Wales] are being warned to keep a close eye on their pets following a spate of thefts. About 10 Jack Russells have gone missing from the Glanamman and Garnant areas in recent months and police believe dognappers are responsible.”[3]

In summary the definition of value is “the importance or usefulness of something [or] the amount of money that something is worth”[4] page 847. This suggests that pets have a purely a useful value or a monetary value. Pets do have a financial value to humans but also an emotional value. The degree of value placed upon that pet is variable and depends on the individual and that definition of a pet is decided upon based on factors such as culture.

References
[1] In the company of Animals: a Study of Human-animal Relationships, James Serpell 1986 Basil Blackwell
[2] Internet article www.rspca.org.uk/servlet/Satellite?pagename=RSPCA/RSPCARedirect&pg=mediacentre&marker=1&articleId=1190637812434 .RSPCA 2008.
[3] internet article http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/south_west/6364541.stm 2007 BBC.
[4] Paperback Oxford English Dictionary, Edited by Catherine Soanes, 2006, Oxford University Press.

Consider how a family dog might learn his behaviour.

When considering how a family dog might learn his behaviour there are two main factor that need to be evaluated, these are Nurture and Nature.

Nurture
Behaviourists such as J.B Watson and B.F. Skinner have argued that the behaviour of Canis lupus familiaris (or domestic dog) can be explained by classical (or Pavlovian) conditioning and operant conditioning.

Classical conditioning was discovered the Nobel Laureate Ivan Pavlov during his investigation of the gastric function of dogs. He learnt that dogs would associate a certain cue with food and therefore would trigger a response in the salivary glands. This has been noticed in one of my own dog that has been inadvertently conditioned to the scrunching of his treats bag and will salivate on hearing the sound of the bag.

Operant conditioning is based around the principles of punishment and reward, the example given in the course text was a rat is rewarded with food for his position in that cage once learnt, the rat’s learning is further stretched by rewarding when he stands next to a bar, then further by touching the bar. Due to the difference in communication methods of dogs and human, the human using operant conditioning as part of dog training must give the reward to the dog quickly after the event, failure to do so may mean that the dog associates another action with the reward and therefore inadvertently conditions himself to another behaviour. Operant conditioning is seen as part of the positive only training system, Cesar Millan discusses his views on operant training “The issue with many in the ‘positive-only’ schools of behaviour training have with me is that they believe I should be using treats and clickers to redirect some of the behaviours that I choose to correct with energy, body language, eye contact, and physical touch” page 44 [1]. However Cesar is still adding something and therefore his training is still akin to the positive only system.

Both classical and operant conditioning are used by dog trainers. For example to teach a dog to sit a trainer will use food as a reward to be given when the dog does what is required. The trainer will then introduce a hand signal as a visual cue to the dog, once learned the trainer will introduce a verbal command to sit. And eventually begin to phase out the food reward. However, the dog still needs to be rewarded at intervals but this reward can be by touch, look, praise by voice or food.

Nature
A school of thought called Ethology has a contrasting explanation of a dog’s behaviour. Ethologist such as Konrad Lorenz, Nikolaas Tinbergen and Karl Von Frisch would argue that much of a dog’s behaviour is innate or instinctive. Ethologists have classified four strategies as the basis for their study: Sign Stimuli, Motor Programs, Drive and Programmed Learning.

Sign Stimuli are the important signals that enable an animal to recognise significant object such as parents and food. These can come in the shape of scent, sight audio, tactile and to a much lesser extent taste stimuli.

Motor Programming is the automatic response to a set of circumstances or sign stimuli, the text example was the goose that rolls back an egg that has rolled from the nest. It could be argued that when Pavlov’s dogs were salivating this was a motor program in response to a sign stimuli, the sign stimuli being the bell rung by Pavlov. Another example of motor programming is when a dog vomits “Vomiting is common in dogs. All vomiting is the result of the activating the vomiting center[sic] in the brain. The vomiting center is well-developed in dogs, so dogs vomit more readily than most other animals. As a dog perceives a need to vomit, he becomes anxious and may seek attention and reassurance. He then begins to salivate and swallow repeatedly. ” [2] page 239

Drive is the dogs’ behaviour that is switched on and off during certain times for example mating and rearing young pups. A bitch will seek out a mate and act accordingly when in season and an unneutered domestic dog will act unusually when he senses a bitch in season. His drive to procreate is triggered by the scent of the bitch, acting as the sign stimuli, which in turn is triggered by the environment around her such as season, availability of food etc.

Programmed learning is similar in some respects to operant conditioning however in contrast to conditioning, programmed learning can only take place in a defined period of time, usually from birth, and for a short time, this is known as the “critical period”. In a further divergence from conditioning programmed learning requires no reward. Programmed learning does have a genetic element to it, for example, it is impossible for genes to carry an exact image of the parents for the young animal but due in part to the fact that the young have little or no contact with other animals they are genetically primed to accept the first presentation of their species that give them the correct cues.

Another important learning step for a dog is the pack environment in which he is born into and develops within. A dog or wolf pack is highly organised and structured. “A hierarchy or a rank-order is a dominance-submission relationship established and maintained by means of ritualized [sic] behavior. Its structure depends on: (1) species, (2) individuals, (3) available resources, (4) the constitution of the group, and (5) the environment.” Page 2[3]. Pups will imitate the actions and behaviours of the older and established pack members. This would be the case in a wolf pack, however latest research by Barry Eaton, suggests that domestic dogs do not create a pack, feral dogs also do not, it is more akin to a social group and not a pack like wolves. “Bear in mind though that the rules [of training a dog] are based on how wolves behave and not how our domestic dogs behave.” [4]

In conclusion a family dog will learn much of his behaviour from a mix of ingrained learning or imprinted behaviour, those other animals in his pack or social group (in the case of a domestic dog his pack may be a motley crew of humans, cats and other dogs) and conditioning both Pavlovian and operant.

The family dog therefore learns its behaviour by means of imprinting, socialisation with the pack, natural drives and programming behaviours. It is unlikely that motor programming could be considered as these programs are not by definition learned but ingrained into the dog as part of its ancestry and evolution.

Conditioning the family dog is an important part of his behaviour and training a dog is a pack animal and modern living means that most dogs are away from the environments that they were breed for and with the absence of a strong pack leader the assertive dog will lead the pack however he will be existing in a world that he does not understand and is unable to control. This can go some way to explain separation anxiety as the dog has no idea of where the human is however the dog feels, as pack leader, that he has responsibility over the pack.

References
[1] Be the Pack Leader, Cesar Millan. Publisher Hodder & Stoughton 2008.
[2] Dog owners Home Veterinary Handbook James M. Griffin & Liisa D. Carlson. Howell book house 2000.
[3] The Evolution of Canine Social Behavior-Dog Language, Roger Abrantes, internet article Wakan tanka 2005
[4] Dominance: Fact or ficions, Barry Eaton, Internet article